Maximising Performance through Running Gait: The Gait Cycle & Deviations

In the second instalment of this marathon training series blog, we will talk about running gait. Running gait and variations in gait has important implications for running-based sports and performance, particularly for long-distance running events whereby thousands of gait cycles occur. As such, a 1% change in running gait can have significant effects in terms of performance, fatigue, recovery and injury risk.

Running gait can be analysed in detail and can provide insights into loading, kinematics, biomechanics, force absorption & generation patterns along with potential deficits that could lead to reduced performance and injury. As such, it is essential to assess and monitor running gait to enhance training, optimise performance and reduce injury risk. In this post, we will delve into the intricacies of running gait, discussing its cycle, common deficits and how improving running gait can enhance performance.

The Running Gait Cycle

The running gait cycle is divided into 2 key phases: stance phase & swing phase

Stance Phase

The stance phase refers to the portion of the running gait cycle where the foot makes contact with the ground. This is also known as the support phase. This accounts for approximately 40% of the gait cycle during running. Of the stance phase, the first 50% of the phase is where the greatest eccentric loading occurs. Three key events occur during this phase - initial contact, midstance and toe-off.

Initial Contact: This is where the foot first starts to contact the ground. In general, muscles are most active in anticipation and just after initial contact. During initial contact, this is where we produce force to ‘absorb’ the load transferred. The quadriceps eccentrically contract (this apposes sprinting where the ankle plantarflexors produce majority of force). Biomechanically, the subtalar joint pronates slightly, the knee flexes (particularly important to reduce passive shock absorption to bone/cartilage and ligament structures) and femoral internal rotation occurs to assist force absorption and prepare for the next phase.

Mid Stance: During the mid stance, the body is supported on a single leg whilst the rest of the body prepares for toe-off. Mechanically, we shift into supination and prepare to use mechanisms such as the Windlass mechanism to transfer and use force to provide propulsion. The knee extends and the quadriceps concentrically contract, producing generation forces.

Toe-Off: The foot starts to lift of the ground and transition into the swing phase. The plantarflexors concentrically contract. The hip extensors also contract concentrically initially, before the hip flexors become dominant and decelerate the backward rotating femur in preparation for swing.

Swing Phase

Once the foot leaves the ground, the leg transitions into the swing phase. This makes up approximately 60% of the running gait cycle.

Initial Swing: During the initial swing phase, the ankle is plantar flexed, the knee is flexed slightly. The hamstrings concentrically contract and quadriceps eccentrically contract before transitioning to the terminal swing phase. The tibialis anterior is contracted to ensure ankle dorsiflexion and foot clearance.

Terminal Swing: During the latter periods of the swing phase, the hamstrings eccentrically contract to control anterior tibial translation upon contact, and the quadriceps concentrically contract in preparation for landing and to prevent knee hyperextension.

Double Float Phase

This phase describes the phases of gait cycle whereby both feet are in the air. This occurs both immediately after toe-off and prior to initial contact. Enhancing running gait to increase double float phase time and reduce ground contact time can improve running performance and biomechanics.

Important to highlight is that frontal plane muscles (adductors, abductors) and transverse plane muscles (trunk, internal & external rotators) are also highly active throughout the gait cycle along with upper body kinematic actions.

Running Deviations, Performance Leaks & Injury Risk

The are numerous running deviations that can occur in an individual. These deviations can lead to ‘leaks’ in force production and absorption kinetics, leading to inefficient gait and reduced performance. Further, such deviations may increase the risk of various running related injuries. Below are a few deviations we see with running athletes:

Overstriding

Overstriding describes gait where excessive distance between initial contact (foot landing) and the athletes centre of mass occurs. Typically with this type of deviation, excessive knee extension is observed during initial contact, reduced hip flexion & increased ankle dorsiflexion.

Various factors contribute as to why an athlete may overstride. Deficits in hamstring strength  (particularly eccentric hamstring strength) may contribute to a more extended knee during initial contact. Further, quadriceps strength may also be reduced in these athletes. During the initial contact phase, the quadriceps contract eccentrically to produce force which provides active shock absorption (muscle). Deficits in eccentric quadriceps strength may place greater load on non-contractile structures, increasing passive shock absorption (bone/ligament/cartilage) and increasing injury risk. Reduced hamstring extensibility may also contribute to overstriding.

Correcting overstriding deviations can reduce braking forces (particularly quadriceps eccentric forces), reducing fatigue and increasing performance. Further, increased risk of compartment syndrome, stress responses/fractures, patellofemoral pain and lower back pain have been reported in the literature with this type of running gait.

Collapsing (Overpronation)

Overpronation is described as excessive foot pronation that is not within the normal range of foot postures. This is important - if you type foot pronation into google you will be flooded with pages stating the pronation is terrible!!! However, as discussed previously, during the running gait cycle we land with a supinated posture and transition quickly to roll into pronation to assist with force absorption, before transitioning back to supination as part of windlass mechanism to provide stiffness during toe off phase.

So why does pronation get such a bad rap? Well numerous studies have observed foot pronation/supination in people who have lower limb injuries or pathologies. However, this is only an observation, and currently there is no evidence supporting the causal relationship between foot pronation and injury/pathology diagnosis. A recent narrative review by Mei et al., (2022) describes nicely the evidence of foot posture and biomechanics during running and injury/pathology -

With this said however, true over-pronation may be a risk factor for injury and performance leaks. This however, should be assessed not in isolation but as part of the whole kinetic chain to assess biomechanics of the lower limb. In particular, static assessment of pronation (eg. navicular drop test) provides only one view of an athletes biomechanics. Dynamic assessment is ideal as this provides an indication of foot mechanics during running where active structures act to provide structure and produce force.

Bouncing

Bouncing is a term used to describe a type of gait where there is increased vertical displacement (oscillation) of an athletes centre of mass (COM).

Vertical displacement is measured from the lowest point of the pelvic during the mid stance phase and the highest point of the pelvis during the flight phase. Increased vertical displacement has been associated with increased knee extensor moment, vertical ground reaction force and breaking impulse. Further, increased ground-contact time has also been associated with greater vertical displacement. These factors reduce running economy, increase total work required to maintain running pace and an overall reduction in performance.

Strategies that can be used to reduce vertical displacement and increase horizontal propulsion include increasing running cadence and cueing techniques. A recent systematic review (Anderson et al., 2022) highlighted that although insufficient strong evidence can conclusively determine the effect of running cadence on running biomechanics and injury, increasing running cadence can reduce kinetic, kinematic and loading rate variables at the ankle, knee and hip.

Crossover

Crossover gait described a running gait deviation whereby during the stance phase of gait, your foot lands either central or medial to your sagittal centre of mass line.

Crossover gait deviations may occur at the start of your run or may develop towards the latter stages of your run as fatigue increases, changing running mechanics. Crossover gait has been associated with increased hip adduction, knee abduction moment and impulse.

Various factors have been highlighted as causes of crossover gait. Poor glute & external hip rotator strength can contribute to medial foot ground contact. An inability to stabilise the contralateral hip during stance may increase lateral pelvic tilt, lateral trunk lean and thus increase crossover gait. Such deficits in stability may increase loading to structures such as the iliotibial band which has been associated with greater hip adduction and knee internal rotation during running versus pain free runners. Tightness through the hip adductor and hamstrings may also increase crossover gait deviations, thus increase injury risk.

Further to the increase injury risk, this type of gait also increases frontal plane activity, reducing running economy and thus reducing performance. Addressing this gait deviation involves assessment of the whole kinetic chain and improving strength deficits, mechanics and muscle flexibility. Further, simple cueing to run either side of a line at a running track along with additional gait retraining drills can improve running economy.

Fatigue & Fatigue Resistance

An important final thought in the assessment and optimisation of running gait is monitoring fatigue and developing fatigue resistance. The effect of fatigue on a running athlete is highly variable and individual with mixed findings reported. Various fatigue effects have been reported in the literature on running kinematics and kinetics during running. These include:

• Increase in peak acceleration of the tibia
• Decrease in leg stiffness (shock attenuation)
• Increased knee flexion at initial contact
• Increased maximum knee flexion during swing phase
• Increase in vertical displacement (found in novice however not in elite runners)

The first step to understanding fatigue is measurement of fatigue. You can check out my previous blog post on load monitoring where we discuss this in relation to external & internal load variables. Other techniques to measure fatigue include wearable technologies (such as WHOOP), video-analysis of gait mechanics & wearables that provide specific data on gait kinetics & kinematics, along with subjective psychological wellbeing questionnaires.

Once fatigue is measured, we can then address this through a combination of strength training (specific & individualised to target areas), specific training to improve variables such as lactate threshold (which in turn optimise gait mechanics) and integration of specific recovery strategies to maximise recovery following training. All these factors result in the following:

Optimised running gait = delay in fatigue = higher performance for longer

Final Thoughts

In the second installment of this marathon training series blog, we explored the intricate world of running gait and its impact on running-based sports and performance, especially for long-distance events. Running gait variations can have significant implications for an athlete's success, with even a 1% change in gait mechanics influencing performance, fatigue, recovery, and injury risk. Through detailed analysis, we gain insights into loading, biomechanics, and force patterns, which can identify potential deficits leading to reduced performance and injury.

The running gait cycle is simple yet complex, with various stages whereby deviations may occur that result in reduced performance & increased injury risk. Although not an exhaustive list, key deviations discussed include overstriding, collapsing (overpronation), bouncing, and crossover gait, each presenting its unique challenges in terms of performance and injury risk. The literature is mixed regarding the effect of these deviations on performance and injury risk, highlighting the importance of an individualised approach based on your objective testing & running gait analysis. Understanding and correcting these deviations through strength training, movement re-education, and feedback techniques are vital in optimizing running form and reducing the risk of injuries.

Running gait also is profoundly influenced by fatigue and fatigue resistance. Monitoring and measuring fatigue through various techniques are crucial in enhancing performance. Addressing fatigue through individualized strength training, specific training to improve variables like lactate threshold, and incorporating tailored recovery strategies can delay the onset of fatigue and improve performance over longer durations.

By incorporating evidence-based gait mechanics research into your running training, you can achieve improvements in gait which, over the long haul, improve your training and performance, helping you achieve your next goal. Remember, running gait is nuanced - an individualised approach is key to achieving the best outcomes. Check out the great references and resources below to delve deeper into this topic and the latest research!

Stay tuned for more informative blog posts, where we will delve into other crucial aspects of marathon training, injury mitigation and performance optimisation. If you are interested in maximising your running performance, check out our high performance management services and inquire today!

Happy running and stay injury-free!

References

Mei, Q., Hyun Kyung Kim, Xiang, L., Shim, V., Wang, A., Baker, J. S., … Fernandez, J. (2022). Toward improved understanding of foot shape, foot posture, and foot biomechanics during running: A narrative review. 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2022.1062598

Evans, A. (2012, July 24). Screening for foot problems in children: is this practice justifiable? Retrieved July 26, 2023, from ResearchGate website: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230564354_Screening_for_foot_problems_in_children_is_this_practice_justifiable

Möhler, F., Cagla Fadillioglu, Scheffler, L., H. Müller, & Stein, T. (2022). Running-Induced Fatigue Changes the Structure of Motor Variability in Novice Runners. 11(6), 942–942. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11060942

Möhler, F., Cagla Fadillioglu, & Stein, T. (2021). Fatigue-Related Changes in Spatiotemporal Parameters, Joint Kinematics and Leg Stiffness in Expert Runners During a Middle-Distance Run. 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.634258

Sherveen Riazati, Caplan, N., Matabuena, M., & Hayes, P. R. (2022). Gait and Neuromuscular Changes Are Evident in Some Masters Club Level Runners 24-h After Interval Training Run. 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.830278

Zandbergen, M. A., Marotta, L., Bulthuis, R., Buurke, J. H., Veltink, P. H., & Reenalda, J. (2023). Effects of level running-induced fatigue on running kinematics: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 99, 60–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2022.09.089

Sherveen Riazati, Caplan, N., Matabuena, M., & Hayes, P. R. (2020). Fatigue Induced Changes in Muscle Strength and Gait Following Two Different Intensity, Energy Expenditure Matched Runs. 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00360

Mason, R., Pearson, L. T., Barry, G., Young, F., Lennon, O., Godfrey, A., & Stuart, S. (2022). Wearables for Running Gait Analysis: A Systematic Review. 53(1), 241–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01760-6

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These articles and blogs are not designed to replace medical advice. If you have an injury we strongly recommend seeking qualified health advice. To discuss your injury or performance needs, please enquire online to discuss how we can progress you health, performance and fitness journey.